How to designate the configuration of a compound so that the name can be used to depict the spatial arrangement of groups at a chiral carbon atom? To do this, use R, S-system proposed by K. Ingold, R. Kahn, Z. Prelog. R, S-system is based on the determination of the seniority of the substituents around the chiral center. The seniority of the groups is determined as follows:

1). The atom with the higher atomic number is the highest relative to the atom with the lower atomic number.

2). If the atoms directly connected to carbon C * are the same, then it is necessary to consider the precedence of the subsequent atoms.

For example, how to determine the older of the groups: -C 2 H 5 and CH (CH 3) 2 in the compound

In the ethyl group, the atom connected to the chiral center is followed by H, H and C, and in the isopropyl group - H, C and C. Comparing these groups with each other, we establish that the isopropyl group is older than the ethyl group.

3). If the chiral carbon C * is connected to an atom that has a multiple bond, then the bonds of this atom should be represented as simple bonds.

4). In order to establish the configuration of the molecule, it is positioned so that the bond of the chiral center with the minor group number 4 is directed away from the observer, and the location of the remaining groups is determined (Fig. 2.6).

Rice. 2.6. Definition R, S-configurations

If the precedence of the groups decreases (1®2®3) clockwise, then the configuration of the chiral center is defined as R(from the Latin word "rectus" - right). If the seniority of the substituents decreases counterclockwise, then the configuration of the chiral center is S(from the Latin "sinister" - left).

The sign of optical rotation (+) or (-) is determined experimentally and is not associated with the designation of the configuration ( R) or ( S). For example, dextrorotatory 2-butanol has ( S) -configuration.

In order to determine the configuration of the connection depicted by Fisher's projection formula, proceed as follows.

1). An even number of permutations of substituents at the chiral center is performed (an odd number of permutations will lead to an enantiomer) so that the junior substituent number 4 is at the top or bottom.

2). Determine the location of the remaining groups, bypassing them in descending order of seniority. If the seniority of the substituents decreases clockwise, then the initial configuration is determined as R-configuration, if counterclockwise, then the configuration is defined as S-configuration.

If it is not easy to transform the projection formula, you can set the order of decreasing precedence by discarding the junior substituent on the side, but choose the "inverse" symbol to denote the configuration. For example, in the original connection

discarding the junior substitute (H), we establish the order of decreasing the seniority: 1 → 2 → 3. We get the notation ( S), change it to ( R) and get the correct name: ( R) -2-chloroethanesulfonic acid.

Determining the computer configuration

Laboratory work

Computer Science, Cybernetics and Programming

Program capabilities - identification of processors and coprocessors from Intel AMD Cyrix VIA Centaur IDT Rise Transmeta NexGen UMC IBM Texas Instruments CT IIT ULSI National Semiconductor SiS; - determination of the processor clock frequency of the multiplier and the system bus frequency determination of the original, without taking into account the overclocking of the processor frequency, the slot socket type and the packing type of the processor platform ID, the determination of the capabilities supported by the processor MMX SSE SSE2 SSE3 3DNow 3DNow Extensions and more ...

DETERMINING COMPUTER CONFIGURATION

Purpose of work: study the basic methods and tools for determining the configuration of a PC, get an idea of ​​the advantages and disadvantages of various methods of obtaining information about the hardware of a computer

To complete the laboratory work, you need to determine the configuration of the PC using standard software and one of the test programs of your choice.

Brief theoretical information

Windows built-in tools

The list of devices installed in the system can be obtained using the standard hardware manager:

The following steps must be performed sequentially: Start Setting  Control Panel System

The System dialog box opened as a result of the actions performed has seven tabs.

1. "General" - the tab is designed to provide information about the installed operating system, active user, serial number, brand of the central processor and the amount of installed RAM. This tab is also available by pressing the keyboard shortcut +.
2. Computer name - displays the computer name, workgroup and domain (if any) to which it belongs. The tab also allows you to change these parameters.
3. "Equipment" - the tab contains tools for installing hardware, the choice of actions when new devices are detected (the "driver signing" tool). To view the list of installed equipment, use the Device Manager tool. The wizard is designed to provide information about all installed devices, such as drivers used, interrupts, memory addresses, DMA channels, etc. and their settings. Also on this tab is the tool "Equipment profiles», Which allows you to set and store various configurations of equipment.
4. "Additionally"- the tab includes three tools. "Performance "- designed to provide information about the installed RAM, activate various modes, for example, 32-bit support from the file system, etc. Windows XP this tool provides customization of visual effects to increase the speed of operation or improve the appearance of the operating system interface. In addition, the wizard allows you to adjust the size of the paging file and optimize the performance of the processor and RAM.

This tab also includes a User Profiles customization tool such as desktop settings, list of available programs, and more. Another tool available from this tab, Startup and Recovery, allows you to view and edit the list of operating systems and assign actions to be taken in case of system failure.

1. "Automatic update"Allows you to customize Windows Update options.
2. "Remote use"includes tools for configuring remote access to this PC for control and configuration.
3. "System Restore"- a tab for configuring control over system changes and the ability to cancel unwanted changes.

To determine the models and types of connected devices, use the "Device Manager" tab. There are two options for displaying information about installed devices.

1. Devices by type- when this mode is specified, the installed devices are divided into types. Let's describe some points:

Disk drives- this item reflects the number of installed IDE hard drives, as well as floppy drives (for Windows 98 or Me operating systems). If you are using Windows 2000 or Windows XP, this item reflects the model name of the installed hard disk.

SCSI controllers and RAID - this folder contains controllers used to connect hard drives, scanners, etc. Sometimes a virtual disk program is left here, for example Paragon CD Emulator

Network cards - here is the model of the network card. If there is a connection to the Internet, the Remote Access Controller will also be indicated here, which, in principle, is not a real device.

System devices- all devices located on the motherboard are indicated here, such as the system speaker, BIOS, CMOS, etc. There is no information about the motherboard model at this point. However, there is some information about the microcircuits used in the chipset.

2. Connection devices- when specifying this mode, you can get the same information about the installed devices, only the sequence of its display will be changed. As a result, you can find out which devices are connected to the PCI bus or to the IDE controller.

Model name of the connected printer can be found by following the Start sequence Settings  Printers.

Some information about the connected joysticks can be obtained in the Control Panel, the Game devices item.

The volume of the hard disk is determined from the Properties item of the context menu of the hard disk (invoked from the window "My Computer" or the Explorer with the right mouse button).

The clock speed of the central processor is determined when you turn on or restart the PC in the BIOS properties.

External vendor testing programs

Computer testing programs are mainly designed to check the stability of the operation of both individual components and the entire system as a whole, as well as to evaluate performance and compare test results with other computers / components. Also in such programs there are additional features for the correct assessment of the quality of the computer as a whole or its individual specific component. This allows you to get a complete report on the computer and / or its individual components.

Most of the existing test programs are synthetic, while on real tasks (especially, data archiving) the computer may show slightly worse results. Sometimes it is very difficult to find a compromise between real performance and benchmarks, so for comparison with other results, some average indicator is used, which allows you to at least relatively judge the speed of a particular system.

There is a huge variety of programs that can be both universal, that is, designed for testing all PC systems, and for working with strictly defined types of devices, for example, a hard disk or a central processor.

Consider the most popular means of determining the configuration of a PC.

1. Sisoft Sandra program

Software tool for analysis and diagnostics of hardware company PC Catalin - Adrian Silasi - SiSoft Sandra Professional screenshot of the program in fig. 1

SiSoft Sandra ("System Analyzer, Diagnostic and Reporting Assistant ") is a utility for collecting information and diagnosing the system, written under Win 32 "s ... The offered information about the system state and settings of Plug-and-Play devices is, in the opinion of the authors, the most complete, since it includes undocumented sources of information. SiSoft Sandra is a 32-bit application that takes advantage of all the enhancements developed for the MS Windows operating systems.

The program provides the ability to work with 4 types of modules:

Information Modules ... - in this window there are modules with which you can find out information about installed devices. For example, when choosing the information module Mainboard Information, you can find out the model of the motherboard and the type of chipset used, the frequency of the system bus, the type of memory modules installed, and much more.

Benchmarking Modules - this window contains modules designed to thoroughly check the performance of each of the installed devices, as well as to compare their speed with the reference indicators of other models.

Listing Modules - this window contains links to all text files available for reading in normal mode, that is, without additional decryption. This allows you to make sure that certain drivers are loaded into the computer's memory, etc.

Testing Modules - there are modules in this window that allow you to test the computer for basic parameters, such as the absence of DMA channel conflicts, interrupts, etc.

2. Program H winfo 32

Hardware Info is designed to identify the components of a personal computer: after benchmark tests, very detailed information about the processor, motherboard, hard drive, video card, RAM, PCI devices, monitor, audio and network controller, ports, and so on will be displayed. In addition, HWiNFO takes readings of sensors integrated into the system, designed to measure processor temperature, fan speed, etc. If necessary, you can also carry out a comparative analysis of the performance of both the entire PC as a whole, and its individual devices - for example, a hard disk or a CPU. The utility is available in two versions, adapted to work under the operating system DOS or Windows 9x / ME / NT / 2000 / XP. Other features of HWiNFO are listed below:

3. Program A ida 32

The information provided by AIDA32 is grouped by tabs. Each tab, in turn, often has several of its internal sections containing more specific information. Themselves informational tabs in the program 15:

Summary - summary information about the system.

Motherboard - detailed information about the processor, its current load, motherboard, memory, chipset, BIOS.

OS - detailed information about the operating system, including a list of current processes and dll files.

Video - information about the video subsystem, including monitor, DirectX and OpenGL.

Multimedia - information about multimedia devices

Drives - information about drives.

Input - information about input devices.

Devices - information about all devices. It is possible to view devices in Windows view, as well as by connection method.

Network - information about the network, including network resources, a list of mail accounts, Internet Explorer cookies, etc.

Software - Lists installed software, startup programs, and registered file types.

Files - configuration files.

Config - list of environment variables and content of the control panel.

Misc - information about power management, DMI, ODBC, etc.

Tools - create a system report with the ability to send it by e-mail, dump the contents of BIOS, Video BIOS, IDE, PCI.

4. ASTRA 32 program

ASTRA32 - Advanced System Information Tool.The program for determining the configuration of the computer. Allows you to get detailed information (including undocumented) about the processor, cache, motherboard, hard drives, CD / DVD, SCSI devices, memory modules, chipset, BIOS, PCI / AGP, USB and ISA / PnP devices, DMI / SMBIOS, monitor, video card, sound and network card, printer, installed programs and much more. Creation of a report file, the ability to export data to computer accounting programs. Ability to work in command line mode.

Features of the program

Identification of processors and coprocessors from Intel, AMD, Cyrix, VIA, Centaur / IDT, Rise, Transmeta, NexGen, UMC, IBM, Texas Instruments, C&T, IIT, ULSI, National Semiconductor, SiS;

Determination of the processor clock frequency, multiplication factor and system bus frequency, determination of the original (excluding overclocking) processor frequency, slot, socket type and packaging type (Platform ID) of the processor, determination of the capabilities supported by the processor (MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3 , 3DNow !, 3DNow! Extensions and more), cache size and parameters

Determining the motherboard manufacturer and site URL, identifying the manufacturer, BIOS date and version, identifying the manufacturer and model of the chipset

Determining the model and capacity of ATA / ATAPI devices (hard drives, CD / DVD devices, ZIP drives). Determination of PIO, DMA and UltraDMA modes (including those active in this configuration). Work with ATA / ATAPI devices on external UDMA / SATA controllers. Determination of the read / write speed of CD drives; determination of SCSI devices (hard drives, CD drives, scanners, streamers) and their parameters (device name, type, size, serial number, temperature, buffer size, rotational speed of hard drives, etc.); reading SPD information from modules memory (size, type, manufacturer, speed characteristics and much more)

Determination of PCI / AGP / PCI-X / PCI-E / PCMCIA, ISA / PnP devices and the resources they use.

Identification of USB devices (manufacturer, model, serial number, version, speed, and more).

DMI / SMBIOS support, incl. determination of the system name, motherboard model, BIOS parameters, processor, cache, memory subsystem, displaying information about slots and ports of the motherboard

Determining the manufacturer and name of the video card, the size of the video memory, determining the type of sound card, modem, network card, LPT / PnP devices (printers, scanners) and much more

Information about Windows, installed programs and updates

Creation of a report file in text and INI format, the ability to work in the command line mode

Ability to import reports into various programs for accounting of computers in the enterprise (Hardware Inspector, JoyStock, Accounting and control of computers in the network, Token CompuLib).

Most testing programs are also available in a version for DOS , which is convenient as it allows you to boot from a floppy disk, CD, or other device (for example USB -disk) and do not install additional software on the working system. Also, the use of such versions is indispensable in determining the configuration of a PC without installed software.

Test results may differ from manufacturer's stated reference values. This is due to the fact that, for example, the speed of the central processor significantly depends on what motherboard is used in the computer, etc. Therefore, in journal articles devoted to testing, for example, a new processor, the configuration of the computer on which the testing was performed is necessarily described. ... Sometimes the same processor is tested on different motherboards, or the results of testing an older processor on the same motherboard model are presented in parallel. It is also worth noting that the benchmarks produce peak performance rates that can be achieved with good software optimization. There are almost no such programs, so the test results should be taken as relative.

Another factor influencing the final result is the optimization of the test program code for one of the SIMD sets. For example, if the SSE2 instruction set is applied, the Pentium processor will perform significantly better than the Athlon processor. Conversely, when using the 3DNow! The Athlon processor will definitely win. In order to get a plausible result, it is necessary to disable all possible optimization parameters and use only the main computing center of the processor. In this case, the test results will be closest to real performance indicators.

The best option is to use third-party benchmarks, such as the Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC), which offers software for evaluating the performance of both professional computers and home computers. Some versions of test programs are available for free "download" on the official website of the company (http://www.spec.org/).

Work order

1. Analyze the configuration of the dedicated computer using built-in Windows tools and testing software.
2. Prepare and protect a report.

Report formatting requirements

The laboratory report should contain the following sections:

1. Laboratory assignment.
2. PC configuration table
3. Conclusions on the work done.

Basic control questions

1. Why is it necessary to know exactly the PC configuration?
2. What information can be obtained using standard Windows tools?
3. What is the difference between the display modes of information about installed devices By type and By connection?
4. What programs for testing hardware and software PCs do you know, what are their differences?

1. Traskovskiy A.V. Device, modernization, repair IBM PC .- SPb .: BHV-Petersburg, 2003.
2. Kaspersky K. PC. Problem solving.

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8.4. Configuration methods

8.4.1. Definition of absolute configuration

To determine the absolute configuration, two methods are used: an experimental study of anomalous X-ray diffraction by the nuclei of heavy atoms and a theoretical calculation of the magnitude of the optical rotation.

8.4.1.a. X-ray diffraction

Due to the fact that X-rays pass through crystals give a diffraction pattern, the method of X-ray structural analysis (XRD) is widely used to establish the structure of chemical compounds. When diffraction occurs on the electron shells of light atoms (C, H, N, O, F, Cl), the nature of the observed interference pattern is determined only by the presence of the nuclei themselves, but not by their nature. This is explained by the fact that light atoms only scatter X-rays, but do not absorb them, and therefore, during the experiment, the phase of the scattered radiation does not change.

Heavy atoms not only scatter, but also absorb X-rays in certain regions of the absorption curve. If the wavelength of the incident radiation coincides with the initial weakly absorbing portion of this curve, then not only ordinary diffraction is observed, but also a certain phase shift of the scattered radiation due to the fact that part of it is absorbed. This phenomenon is called abnormal X-ray scattering. In the presence of only light atoms, X-ray structural analysis makes it possible to determine the internuclear distances between bound and unbound atoms and, on their basis, draw conclusions about the structure of a given molecule and the presence of chiral elements in it. In this case, the enantiomers cannot be distinguished. However, in the presence of heavy atoms, the character of anomalous scattering depends not only on the distance between atoms, but also on the relative position in space. The phenomenon of anomalous X-ray diffraction makes it possible to directly determine the absolute configurations of molecules containing heavy atoms, as well as molecules into which heavy atoms can be introduced as special labels.

For the first time such an analysis was carried out by Beyfoot in 1951, who, on the basis that the Ka-emission of zirconium coincides with the beginning of the absorption band of rubidium, and the La-emission of uranium - with the beginning of the absorption band of bromine, for the first time established the absolute configuration (+) - sodium rubidium tartrate (XXVIII ) and hydrobromide (-) - isoleucine (XXIX).

After establishing the absolute configuration of compound XXVIII, it turned out that the previously arbitrarily chosen configuration of (+) - glyceraldehyde turned out, surprisingly, to be guessed correctly.

At present, using PCA, the absolute configuration of several hundred compounds has been determined. It should be said that manual analysis of anomalous diffraction patterns is an extremely laborious process. However, with the help of modern automatic diffractometers equipped with computers, this takes only a few days.

8.4.1.b. Theoretical calculation of optical rotation

In 1952, a quantum-chemical calculation of the optical rotation of zantiomers was published using the example of trans-2,3-epoxybutane (XXX). The configuration of this epoxide can be correlated with the configuration of tartaric acid and further with glyceraldehyde. At the same time, it was again found that the previously arbitrarily chosen stereo formula of D-glyceraldehyde is absolutely correct and there is no need to change the image of this configuration accepted in the literature for many years.

8.4.2. Determining relative configuration

In determining the relative configuration, a connection with an unknown configuration is associated with another connection, the configuration of which is already known. Let's consider the most important of these methods.

8.4.2.a. Chemical correlation

The chemical methods that can be used to establish relative configurations are very diverse and are so closely intertwined with the general material of organic chemistry that they are found in almost all chapters of this book devoted to the consideration of individual classes of organic compounds. Therefore, here we will consider, with a few examples, only the basic principles of their application.

The first group of methods is associated with the transformation of a compound with an unknown configuration into a compound with a known configuration or the formation of an unknown configuration from a known chiral element without disturbance, for example, a chiral center. Since the chiral center is not affected during the transformation, it is obvious that the product must have the same configuration as the starting compound.

In this case, it is not at all necessary that if the unknown compound belongs to the (R) -series, then the known one will also have the (R) -configuration. For example, in the reduction of (R) -1-bromo-2-butanol to 2-butanol without affecting the chiral center, the product will be the (S) -isomer, despite the fact that its configuration has not changed. This is due to the fact that the CH 3 CH 2 group, by definition (see Section 8.3.3.), Is younger than the BrCH 2 group, but older than the CH 3 group.

One of the many examples of chemical correlation is the establishment of the relative configuration of D-galactose (XXXI) by its oxidation. Since this process leads to the formation of an optically inactive dicarboxylic acid, the relative configuration of its four chiral centers can correspond to either structure XXXII or structure XXXIII. But dicarboxylic acid (XXXIV), obtained from galactose by oxidative elimination of an aldehyde carbon atom, is optically active. Therefore, D-galactose has a relative configuration shown by formula XXXI.

Similar transformations with L-galactose give the same results, except for the opposite sign of optical rotation. Consequently, in a similar way it is possible to find out only the relative configuration of the studied molecules (in this case XXXI and XXXII), but not their absolute configurations.

Below is an example of the configurational correlation of (+) - tartaric acid with (+) - (R) -glyceric aldehyde based on transformations that do not affect the asymmetric center.

The second group of chemical correlation methods is based on the transformation at the chiral center, the mechanism of which is precisely known. Thus, the reaction S N 2 occurs with the reversal (inversion) of the configuration of the reaction center (see Chapter 9). Using a sequence of such reactions, the (+) - lactic acid configuration was correlated with the (S) - (+) - alanine configuration.

It should be emphasized that the concept of "reversing" or "maintaining" a configuration is applicable to achiral reaction centers and serves to indicate a specific reaction mechanism. However, when it comes to the absolute configurations of chiral reaction centers (which are determined by the rules of sequential precedence within the R, S-nomenclature), it makes no sense to invoke the concepts of "inversion" or "preservation" of a configuration, since This or that configuration is determined only by the seniority of the substituents, and the change in seniority as a result of the substitution of one of the groups does not have to coincide with the real spatial orientation of its entry into the molecule, for example:

The third group includes biochemical methods. In a series of one class of compounds, for example, amino acids, a certain enzyme attacks molecules of only one configuration. If some enzyme, say, attacks only the (S) -amino acids, without touching the (R) -form, and this has been experimentally established in a number of examples, then another amino acid exposed to the action of the same enzyme must belong to (S) - row.

Introduction.

In this article we will consider the issues of finding and determining the parameters of various devices.

When a programmer has a question like "How to determine how much RAM is in a computer?"

But what if you cannot use the services, for example, in the case of developing your own OS? (Of course it sounds unrealistic, but, nevertheless, there have always been enthusiasts, and if you do not write your own OS, then at least figure out how the already written OS do it, I think it will be interesting.

This article is intended to answer the question of how to determine the installed equipment at the fully hardware level.

Let's immediately determine what exactly we will define:

1. Processor (frequency, manufacturer, capabilities)
2. RAM (volume)
3. HDD (Volume).
4. PCI devices (manufacturer, model)

1) CPU .

Determining any existing intel-compatible processor consists of 3 main steps:

1. Determine support for the CPUID instruction.
2. If it is supported, define the rest of the parameters.
3. Determination of the clock frequency.

Processors support the CPUID instruction (both intel and AMD), starting from the fifth generation (Pentium) and later 486 models (for TASM to "correctly understand" you when using CPUID, it must be version 5.0 or higher).

If it is not supported, it is possible to determine the manufacturer and other parameters of the processor only in some undocumented ways.

Let's see the difference between processors that do not support CPUID (80386, 80486, older processors like 80286 and below, I think it makes no sense to consider).

It's simple - if bit 18 in EFLAGS is available, then the processor is 486 or better, if it cannot be changed with the POPF - 386 instruction.

In the same EFLAGS, you need to try to change the ID bit (21) if it can be changed programmatically - the processor supports the CPUID instruction.

The CPUID has a parameter that is specified in the EAX register.

Usually, in response to a CPUID call with EAX = 0, the processor returns some manufacturer identifier string in EBX: ECX: EDX.

Intel is GenuineIntel, AMD is AuthenticAMD, Cyrix is ​​CyrixInstead.

(Note that all strings are 12 characters long - three 4-byte registers).

When CPUID is called with EAX = 1, information about the type, model and stepping (changes within one model) of the processor is returned in the EAX register.

These values ​​are decrypted according to special tables.

EAX - stepping
EAX - model
EAX - family
EAX - type
EAX - reserve (reserved)
EAX - extended model (Pentium 4 only)
EAX - extended family (Pentium 4 only)
EAX - reserve (reserved)
EBX - brand-index
EBX - the length of the line cleared by the CLFLUSH instruction (Pentium 4)
EBX - reserve
EBX is the processor APIC identifier.
ECX - 0

EDX contains information about various architecture extensions (if a certain bit is 1 - the extension is supported). Below is a table by which you can independently expand the program attached to the article.

Bit	Description
0	Coprocessor presence
1	Extension for V86 mode, presence of VIP and VIF flags in EFLAGS
2	Debug extensions (stop on port access)
3	Possibility of expanding the page size up to 4MB
4	Real time stamp counter (and RDTSC instructions)
5	Pentium style model-specific register support
6	Extension of the physical address to 36 bits
7	Machine Check Exception support
8	CMPXCHG8B Instruction
9	Availability of APIC
10	RESERVED
11	SYSENTER and SYSEXIT instruction support (for AMD - SYSCALL and SYSRET)
12	Caching Control Registers (MTRR)
13	Globality bit support in page directory items
14	Machine control architecture support
15	Support for CMOVxx conditional forwarding instructions
16	Support for page attributes
17	Possibility to use PSE-36 mode for page addressing
18	CPU serial number support
19	CLFLUSH instruction support
20	RESERVED
21	Support for debug navigation history recording
22	Synchronization frequency control (ACPI), for AMD - "proprietary" MMX
23	Support MMX
24	Support for instructions to save / restore FPU context
25	SSE
26	SSE2
27	Self Snoop
28	RESERVED
29	Automatic performance degradation in case of overheating
30	Advanced instructions AMD 3Dnow!
31	AMD 3Dnow!

When CPUID is called with EAX = 2 (the function has appeared since Pentium II, it is not available in AMD processors) so-called "descriptors" are returned in the EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX registers, which describe the capabilities of caches and TLB buffers. Moreover, AL contains a number indicating how many times the CPUID must be executed sequentially (with EAX = 2) to obtain complete information. Descriptors are built on the following principle: no bits need to be tested, if a certain byte is simply present in the register, then it needs to be interpreted. In practice, they usually do this, for example EDX, first look at what is in DL, interpret its contents, then do SHR EDX, 8 and watch DL again, etc. Bit 31 is a sign of reliability of information in the register, if it is equal to 1 - the contents of the register are valid. Before executing the CPUID command with EAX = 2, you first need to make sure that the current processor supports it.

Happy owners of Pentium III processors (only them) can determine the serial number of their processor (having previously enabled its message in the BIOS by the processor, which is disabled by default) using the CPUID with EAX = 3.

In the EDX: ECX registers, the least significant 64 bits of the number are returned, while what is returned in EAX with CPUID (EAX = 1), they make up a unique 96-bit processor identifier (which, at one time, there was so much talk about).

In addition, AMD processors have the ability to call the functions EAX = 80000005h and 80000006h, they report such information as the associativity of TLB and cache elements, but we will not delve into such a jungle now.

AMD processors (starting with K5) and Pentium4 have the ability to report some 48-character string (not the one by CPUID (0)), these capabilities are also enabled using function numbers over 80000000h.

The CPUID instruction is available in any processor mode and with any privilege level.

The manual is accompanied by a source code dedicated to using the CPUID instruction, the program determines support for MMX, SSE, SSE2. There, only cases with EAX = 0 and EAX = 1 are used, the reason for this is simple - starting with EAX = 2, very large discrepancies begin between intel and AMD, and I do not want to make a manual sharpened for intel (as well as for AMD). To provide for both cases means to complicate the program and find yourself having problems with testing on different processors.

The frequency of the processor can be determined in many ways, in the old days the cycle time was measured, but I must say that this method is very inaccurate and is not applicable to all processors.

Since the Pentium, a clock counter has been introduced into the architecture (generally speaking Intel does not call it that, and claims that in the future it may not count clock cycles, it is only guaranteed that the counter will increase monotonically), we will determine the processor frequency using this particular counter. To begin with, a little about himself: The clock counter has a capacity of 64 bits and increases by 1 with each processor clock starting from the RESET # signal, it continues counting when the HLT instruction is executed (in fact, when this instruction is executed, the processor does not stop at all, but only continuously executes the NOP instruction, which, in turn, is a camouflaged instruction XCHG AX, AX (NOP opcode is 10010000b, XCHG AX opcode, reg is 10010reg, which when using the AX (000) register gives 10010000b, it is interesting that in fact there is a 32-bit analogue of NOP-a - XCHG EAX, EAX, the processor reacts normally to the code sequence 66h, 90h) Reading the clock counter can be disabled for application programs (CPL = 3) by setting 1 bit TSD in CR4 (reading is disabled in win). RDTSC instructions (whose compiler swears at it - db 0fh, 031h) EDX: EAX registers contain the current counter value.

1. All interrupts except timer interrupts are masked.
2. Made by HLT.
3. The counter value is read and stored.
4. HLT again.
5. The counter value is read.
6. The difference between the values ​​read in points 3 and 5 is the number of ticks per 1 tick of the timer (the frequency of timer interruptions is approximately 18.2Hz).

At first glance, nothing is clear. Let's take a look at the timing diagram.

The moment the program starts is designated as t0, the dashes on the axis are the moments when the timer interrupt occurs. The first HLT in the listing is needed to overcome the time t1, which is unknown in advance, since the program can be launched at any time. Then, at the moment between t1 and t2, the counter value is read, it is stored and HLT is done again, the processor will be idle until the first interrupt, that is, almost exactly the period t2, which is equal to the period of interrupts from the timer. Thus, with a known value of the timer period of 18.2 Hz, as well as the number of clock cycles during this period, you can find out the exact clock frequency.

Mov al, 0FEh; mask all interrupts except the out 21h timer, al hlt rdtsc mov esi, eax hlt rdtsc sub eax, esi; in EAX - the number of processor cycles per 1 tick of the timer ...… ..; conversion to megahertz and displaying mov al, 0 out 21h, al

2) RAM

Now let's talk about RAM.

The already classic method for determining its volume is the following principle:

If you write something to a physically non-existent address, and then read something from the same address, the written and read values ​​will naturally not match (in 99, (9) percent of cases, zeros are read). The algorithm itself is as follows:

1. Initialize counter.
2. Store the value from memory in the register at the address [counter]
3. Write the test value into memory (in our case, it will be AAh)
4. Read from memory.
5. Restore old value at this address.
6. Compare written and read value
7. If equal - counter = counter + 1, if not - exit from the loop.
8. JMP paragraph 2

At first glance, everything is very simple, but with the practical implementation of the given algorithm, many problems arise: first, the program itself that counts the memory is located in this very memory and sooner or later it will overwrite itself with a test value. This nuance is usually solved like this:

the program is executed in real mode within the first megabyte, while the counting starts from addresses above a megabyte.

This method creates another problem - in real mode, only this very one megabyte is directly available. This problem is solved by using the "unreal" mode, aka Big real-mode.

Those who know what an "unreal" mode is can skip this paragraph, those who do not know get ready to listen%)

As you know in the processor, each segment register has hidden or shadow parts in which the segment descriptor is cached in a protected mode, they are invisible to the programmer. In protected mode, these parts are updated every time a new value is loaded into the segment register, in real mode, only the fields of the base address of the segment are updated. If you create a segment with a 4GB limit in protected mode and load such a selector into the segment register, then switch to real mode, and, without following the Intel recommendations, leave the limit equal to 4GB - the segment limit value will remain, allowing you to use 32-bit offsets. Algorithm for transition to unreal mode:

1. Create descriptor with base equal to 0
2. Set segment limit to 4GB
3. Switch to protected mode
4. Load a segment selector into a segment register
5. Switch to real mode

After these steps, you can real mode use constructs like:

мov ax, word ptr fs:

Where EDX can go from zero to 4GB without causing any protection exceptions (in "real" real mode, exceeding 64Kb causes a GP # exception) In fact, EDX = target address, since the segment base in FS = 0.

In protected mode, when page addressing is enabled, it is useless to count memory by this method, because in addition to the main memory, the paging file on the hard drive will also be considered, and in the future you can always get a value of about 4 GB (depending on the OS).

There is one more subtle point here: in the books of M. Hooke and V. Yurov it is written that FS or GS should be used as an "unreal" segment register, since other registers are often reloaded and the processor allegedly resets the 64Kb limit after restarting the segment register in real mode ... In practice, this is not the case at all. The processor DOES NOT TOUCH the limit fields in real mode.

To avoid additional problems (possible), I will give an example with the FS register.

We distracted a little from the main thing, namely from the RAM.

Algorithm:

1. Install "unreal mode"
2. Open senior address lines (GateA20)
3. Set counter to 1048576 (1Mb)
4. Write-read cycle
5. Print counter value
6. Close valve A20
7. Output

Listing example:

586P DESCRIPTOR STRUC; Segment descriptor structure for; protected mode limit dw 0 base_1 dw 0 base_2 db 0 attr db 0 lim_atr db 0 base_3 db 0 ENDS GDT segment use16; GDT table empty dq 0 _code descriptor<0,0,0,0,0,0>; Descriptor for program code segment _temp descriptor<0,0,0,0,0,0>; "Unreal" GDT descriptor ends data segment use16 gdtr df 0; Field for GDTR register string db "Memory available:", 20 dup (0) data ends stck segment stack use16; Stack db 256 dup (0) stck ends code segment use16 assume cs: code, ss: stck, ds: gdt start:; entry point mov ax, gdt mov ds, ax mov _code.limit, 65535; Code segment limit 64Kb mov eax, code; Get the physical address and load the base shl eax, 4 mov _code.base_1, ax shr eax, 8 mov _code.base_2, ah mov _code.attr, 09Ah; Attributes - code segment mov _temp.limit, 65535; Set the limit to the maximum value mov _temp.attr, 092h; Attributes - segment data, read / write access mov _temp.lim_atr, 08Fh; Set the most significant bits of the limit and the G bit assume ds: data; Get the physical address of the GDT table mov ax, data mov ds, ax mov eax, gdt shl eax, 4 mov dword ptr, eax; load the limit and address of the GDT table mov word ptr gdtr, 23 cli; Disable interrupts mov al, 80h; Disable NMI mov dx, 70h out dx, al lgdt gdtr; Load GDTR mov eax, cr0 ; Switch to protected mode inc al mov cr0, eax db 0EAh; Far JMP for loading CS with the selector dw offset protect dw 08h protect: mov ax, 10h; Load FS in protected mode mov fs, ax mov eax, cr0; Go back to real mode dec al mov cr0, eax db 0EAh dw offset real dw code real:; Open gate GateA20 mov dx, 92h in al, dx or al, 2 out dx, al mov ecx, 1048576; Initial counter value - 1 Megabyte mov al, 0AAh; Test value count: mov dl, byte ptr fs:; Save the old value at the address mov byte ptr fs:, al; write a test value there mov al, byte ptr fs:; read from the same address mov byte ptr fs:, dl ; restore the old value cmp al, 0AAh; read what you wrote down? jnz exit; No - such an address does not physically exist inc ecx; Yes - increase the counter and repeat all over again jmp count exit:; Allow interrupts mov al, 0 mov dx, 70h out dx, al sti mov dx, 92h; Close gate A20 in al, dx and al, 0FDh out dx, al mov ax, cx; the procedure for converting a number to a string requires shr ecx, 16; for the value to be in DX: AX mov dx, cx; Convert DX: AX = ECX push ds pop es lea di, string add di, 18; skip the string "Memory available" call DwordToStr; convert to character mov ah, 9 mov dx, offset string; output int 21h mov ax, 4c00h; Shutdown int 21h code ends end start

After starting the program, you should wait a little, about 2 times longer than the time taken by the BIOS when booting.

There is one way to multiply the speed of the program. The fact is that this source calculates the memory with a byte precision; generally speaking, such precision is not needed, since the size of a modern memory strip cannot be multiple of a megabyte, so you can increase the counter by immediately adding the value 1048576 to it, which can be achieved by replacing the inc ecx command with add ecx, 1048576 in the write-read cycle.

3) VOLUME HDD

The hard drive volume is detected using the IDENTIFY DEVICE ATA command.

What's what, see my article “ATA for the Zealous. Part 1"

There is also the source code for ATA_ID.asm which determines the volume of the screw.

4) Devices PCI.

Now it's time to dissect the PCI bus.

First, let's introduce a fundamental concept - PCI configuration space.

This is the name of the register array that each PCI device has, through which various parameters are set (interrupt numbers for the device, etc.). Communication with PCI devices occurs mainly through 2 32-bit ports 0CF8h and 0CFCh. Through them, you can read and write to this very configuration space of a specific device.

This process takes place as follows:

The 0CF8h register sets the address of the device on the bus, after which data is read (written) from 0CFCh.

The device coordinates on the bus (format 0CF8h) look like this:

The 31st bit shows the reliability of the information in the register, there should be 1.

Bus Number - PCI bus number. (there may well be several of them, for example, the AGP port uses the wrong bus to which the PCI slots are connected).

Device Number - device number on the bus

Function Number - the function number of the device (here it is necessary to define a little with the terminology, the fact is that the function means the device itself, then the device means the bus subscriber, that is, if, for example, there is a card in which 2 which are combined -or device, then it will be perceived as one device with two functions, and even such a "single-function" device as a video card can have many functions). This division into devices and functions is in most cases purely logical, the "main" device corresponds to function 0.

Register Number - the number of the register of the configuration space to be read (written). (In general, the entire field up to the 0th bit is used, but since the exchange is made with double words (4 bytes), it turns out that the least significant 2 bits are always zero).

We are now interested in how you can find out the type and manufacturer of the device. Let's look at the map of the configuration space:

fields marked in yellow should be present for all devices, it is there that information is stored about what kind of device it is and who its manufacturer is. We will be interested in 2 fields:

VendorID - Vendor ID.

DeviceID - device code.

It's time to answer the very important question "What if you read something from the configuration space of a really non-existent device?"

Answer: the value 0FFFFFFFFh specially reserved for this purpose will be read (although if this is done under win, then the OS can substitute anything there).

From this all, we can draw the following conclusion: to find all devices, you need to read their configuration spaces in a loop (changing Bus from zero to 255, dev from 0 to 31, func from zero to 7), if read 0FFFFFFFFh, then there is no device, if read something else - the device is present.

Here is an example of a routine reading from the PCI configuration space.

The function number is in BL, the device number in BH, the function in CL, and the offset (register number) in CH.

; BL - bus, BH - device, CL - function, CH - register RD_PCI PROC NEAR mov dx, 0CF8h xor eax, eax mov al, bl or ah, 80h; Validity bit in 1 shl eax, 16 mov ah, bh shl ah , 3 or ah, cl mov al, ch and al, 0FCh; Clear 2 LSBs out dx, eax mov dx, 0CFCh in eax, dx ret RD_PCI ENDP

And here's what the code for finding all devices might look like:

Mov bl, 0; bus mov bh, 0; device mov cl, 0; function mov ch, 0; register label1: call rd_pci; Read register cmp eax, 0ffffffffh; If all ones are read, there is no device jnz device_found; If not all ones - "something is" label2:; inc cl; If this block is uncommented, not; cmp cl, 8; only devices, but all their functions; jnz label1; mov cl, 0 inc bh; Cycle of devices cmp bh , 32 jnz label1 mov bh, 0 inc bl; PCI bus cycle cmp bl, 255 jz exit jmp label1 device_found: ...; Convert read values ​​into symbols and display

...; Converting the read values ​​into symbolic form and displaying them on the screen

1. Outputting the string (CPUID (0)) and detecting MMX, SSE, SSE2 support. (CPUID.asm)
2. Determination of frequency using RDTSC (CLOCK.asm).
3. Determination of the amount of RAM (MEMORY.asm).
4. HDD size in sectors of 512 bytes (ATA_ID.asm)
5. Finding and displaying VendorID and DeviceID of all PCI devices (PCI.asm).
6. TXT file for decrypting VendorID and DeviceID (PCIDEVS.TXT).

If you have any problems - write [email protected]

Configuration I Configuration (from late lat.configuratio - shaping, location)

appearance, shape, image; mutual arrangement of objects; the ratio of the constituent parts of complex objects.

II Configuration

molecules, in stereochemistry (See Stereochemistry) characterizes the spatial arrangement of atoms or groups of atoms at an asymmetric atom (See Asymmetric atom) , at an asymmetrically substituted double bond (see Double bond), at a small (rigid) cycle, at the central atom in complexes. Differences between the configurations of molecules determine the existence of two types of stable stereoisomers - geometric and optical (see Isomerism). In determining K., chemical and especially physical research methods are widely used. So, using a special X-ray method, it was possible to prove, for example, the spatial arrangement of substituents at asymmetric C atoms (marked with asterisks) in a tartaric acid molecule (see Tartaric acids) . - in dextrorotatory (I) and levorotatory (II):

Tolerance of a molecule does not change when its conformation changes (See Conformation) , that is, when rotating around simple bonds of individual parts of the molecule relative to each other. Sometimes (for example, in physical chemistry and the chemistry of macromolecular compounds) the term "K." is understood more broadly, meaning the complete spatial model of the molecule.

V.M. Potapov.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

Synonyms:

See what "Configuration" is in other dictionaries:

- (lat.configurare, from cum with, and figura image). 1) image, view. 2) the position of the planets in relation to each other. 3) the position of the stars relative to the known constellations. 4) the configuration of the country, the outline of its borders. Dictionary of foreign words included in ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Configuration: Wiktionary has an article "configuration" Configuration (astronomy) ... Wikipedia

Cm … Synonym dictionary

configuration- and, w. configuration f., ger. Konfiguration lat. configuratio similarity. 1.asters. The relative position of the planets. Sl. 18. Any difference in the distance between the sky and the stars, from their distances between themselves, configuration, and from the convergence and divergence occurs. ... ... Historical Dictionary of Russian Gallicisms

configuration- A set of parameter values ​​that determine the operation of the device. [Intent] configuration - configuration (ITIL Service Transition) General term used to describe a group ... ... Technical translator's guide

CONFIGURATION, configurations, women. (lat.configuratio image) (book). View, outline, image. || The mutual arrangement of any objects, the ratio of some objects. Configuration of stars in the sky. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. ... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

- (from late lat. configuratio shaping arrangement), appearance, outline; mutual arrangement of objects ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

CONFIGURATION, and, wives. (specialist.). External outline, as well as the relative position of objects or their parts. K. products. | adj. configuration, oh, oh. Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Female external view, outline, outline, image. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary. IN AND. Dahl. 1863 1866 ... Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary

- (from the late Latin coniguratio shaping, location) of the aircraft a combination of the positions of the elements of the wing, landing gear, external suspensions and other parts and assemblies of the aircraft that determine its external outlines. Depending on the stage of the flight ... ... Encyclopedia of technology

- (from lat.configuratio form, style) eng. configuration; German Konfiguration. 1. External outline, relative position to. L. objects or parts thereof. 2. In a gestalt psychologist and a sample consisting of interdependent elements, when studying to ... ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

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