In the development of network technologies, three main trends are clearly distinguished: the growth of the number of connected mobile clients, the improvement of existing and the emergence of new web services, and an increase in the share of online video traffic.

“Americans need a phone, but we don't. We have a lot of messengers. " Sir W. Preece, Chief Engineer of the British Post Office, 1878.

"Who the hell wants to hear the actors talk?" G.M. Warner, Warner Bros., 1927.

"I think the global market can reach five computers." Thomas Watson, CEO of IBM, 1943.

“Television will not be able to carry out the first six months in any market it has captured. People will soon get tired of looking at a plywood box every night. " Darryl Zanuck, 20th Century Fox, 1946.

In the first decade of the 21st century, the Internet "changed its status" from a global computer network to a "global information space", showing itself both in social and economic spheres and continuing to evolve. The ability to access the Web not only from a computer, but also from other devices, the growing popularity of online versions of traditionally off-line telecommunication services (telephony, radio, television), unique online services - all this contributes to the continued growth of the number of Internet users and, as a result, increased traffic. According to Cisco's forecasts in the Visual Networking Development Index, global traffic will exceed 50 exabytes by 2015 (up from 22 exabytes in 2010). Online video will take the lion's share of traffic generation, the volume of which in 2011 for the first time exceeded the aggregate traffic of other types (voice + data). By 2015, video traffic will be over 30 exabytes (up from 14-15 exabytes in 2010). The Internet will remain the main means of accessing content, while the share of traffic from mobile devices directly connected to this network. The volume of voice traffic will increase insignificantly. “telephone” voice communication is being replaced by video telephone communication.

Access to resources

The projected increase in network activity may affect the accelerated transition of telecommunications companies from the existing network infrastructure to the implementation of the concept multiservice network ().

Rice. 1. The concept of a multiservice network

Multiservice network is a network environment capable of transmitting audio, video streams and data in a unified (digital) format over a single protocol (network layer: IP v6). Packet switching, used instead of circuit switching, makes the multiservice network ready to use at all times. Bandwidth reservation, transmission prioritization, and quality of service (QoS) protocols differentiate the services provided for different types traffic. This ensures transparent and consistent network connectivity and access to network resources and services for both existing client devices and those that will appear in the near future. Wired access in a multiservice network will become even faster, and mobile access will become even cheaper.

Internet radio

Streaming Internet radio appeared in the late 90s of the XX century. and quickly gained popularity. Leading radio stations provided users with the opportunity to listen to on-air programs through a browser. With the growth in the number of network radio stations, third-party developers began to offer users specialized client applications - Internet radio players.

An example of an Internet radio player is Radiocent. In addition to the main function, online radio, this player offers the following features: access to tens of thousands (!) Internet radio stations; flexible management of the playlist; search for music and radio online by country and genre; the ability to record from the air in mp3 format. The Windows version of the Radiocent program can be downloaded for free on the official website.

Radiocent program interface

Services

Video communication will become the main type of subscriber communication, and television will undergo a transformation, as a result of which the TV and personal computer... Television sets with a built-in browser are already on the market, and in 3-5 years, even in Russia, providers will present non-digitized terrestrial television, but real digital (interactivity + HDTV).

The share of online multimedia services will increase, movies and music online will become more accessible and of better quality.

Market software will shift towards applications for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. The most popular will be web services replacing traditional offline applications. It will be possible to work with network packages of applied programs via the Internet using the “software as a service” model. Only 20% -25% of software products will be developed for the PC.

The development of online commerce will lead to an increase in the number of goods and services that can be ordered in online markets. Habitual shopping experience can change completely: no need to go to the grocery store. It will be enough to go to the supermarket's website from a smartphone and place an order for the necessary products, pay for it immediately from a smartphone and wait for delivery.

The development of Internet banking will lead to the emergence of client-bank applications for smartphones. Sighting of financial transactions in such an application will be carried out biometrically or by touch "gestures" on the touchscreen.

Services " virtual reality"Will allow you to" see "yourself in the car of the model you like or" try on "clothes of a certain type in the given conditions.

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Network technology is an agreed set of standard protocols and software and hardware that implements them (for example, network adapters, drivers, cables and connectors), sufficient for building a computer network. The epithet “sufficient” underlines the fact that this set is the minimum set of tools with which you can build a workable network. Perhaps this network can be improved, for example, by allocating subnets in it, which will immediately require, in addition to the Ethernet standard protocols, the use of the IP protocol, as well as special communication devices - routers. The improved network will most likely be more reliable and faster, but at the expense of add-ons over the tools Ethernet technologies, which formed the basis of the network.

The term "network technology" is most often used in the narrow sense described above, but sometimes its expanded interpretation is also used as any set of tools and rules for building a network, for example, "end-to-end routing technology", "technology for creating a secure channel", "IP technology. networks ".

The protocols on the basis of which the network of a certain technology (in the narrow sense) is built were specially developed for collaboration, therefore, no additional effort is required from the network developer to organize their interaction. Sometimes networking technologies are called basic technologies, bearing in mind that on their basis the basis of any network is built. Examples of basic network technologies include, along with Ethernet, such well-known LAN technologies as Token Ring and FDDI, or X.25 and frame relay technologies for wide area networks. To get a workable network in this case, it is enough to purchase software and hardware related to one basic technology - network adapters with drivers, hubs, switches, cabling, etc. - and connect them in accordance with the requirements of the standard for this technology.

Creation of standard technologies of local networks

In the mid-80s, the state of affairs in local networks began to change dramatically. The standard technologies for connecting computers into a network - Ethernet, Arcnet, Token Ring - have been approved. Personal computers served as a powerful incentive for their development. These mass products were ideal elements for building networks - on the one hand, they were powerful enough to run network software, and on the other, they clearly needed to combine their computing power to solve complex problems, as well as separate expensive peripheral devices and disk arrays. Therefore, personal computers began to prevail in local networks, not only as client computers, but also as data storage and processing centers, that is, network servers, displacing mini-computers and mainframes from these familiar roles.

Standard networking technologies have turned the process of building a local area network from an art to a chore. To create a network, it was enough to purchase network adapters of the appropriate standard, for example, Ethernet, a standard cable, connect the adapters to the cable with standard connectors and install one of the popular network operating systems, for example, NetWare, on the computer. After that, the network began to work and the connection of each new computer did not cause any problems - naturally, if a network adapter of the same technology was installed on it.

Local area networks, in comparison with global networks, have brought a lot of new things to the way users work. Access to shared resources has become much more convenient - the user can simply view the lists of available resources, and not remember their identifiers or names. After connecting to a remote resource, it was possible to work with it using the commands already familiar to the user when working with local resources. The consequence and at the same time the driving force behind this progress was the emergence of a huge number of non-professional users who did not need to learn special (and rather complex) commands for networking... And the developers of local networks got the opportunity to realize all these conveniences as a result of the appearance of high-quality cable communication lines, on which even the first generation network adapters provided data transfer rates up to 10 Mbps.

Of course, the developers of global networks could not even dream of such speeds - they had to use the communication channels that were available, since the laying of new cable systems for computer networks thousands of kilometers long would require colossal capital investments. And "at hand" were only telephone communication channels, poorly suited for high-speed transmission of discrete data - the speed of 1200 bps was a good achievement for them. Therefore, the economical use of the bandwidth of communication channels was often the main criterion for the effectiveness of data transmission methods in global networks. Under these conditions, various procedures for transparent access to remote resources, standard for local networks, have long remained an unaffordable luxury for global networks.

Modern tendencies

Today, computer networks continue to evolve, and quite rapidly. The gap between local and global networks is constantly narrowing largely due to the emergence of high-speed territorial communication channels, which are not inferior in quality to the cable systems of local networks. In global networks, resource access services appear, as convenient and transparent as local network services. The most popular global network, the Internet, demonstrates such examples in large numbers.

Local networks are also changing. Instead of a passive cable connecting computers, they have a large number of various communication equipment - switches, routers, gateways. Thanks to this equipment, it became possible to build large corporate networks with thousands of computers and a complex structure. Interest in large computers has rekindled, largely because after the euphoria over ease of working with personal computers has subsided, it has become clear that systems with hundreds of servers are more difficult to maintain than a few large computers. Therefore, in a new round of the evolutionary spiral, mainframes began to return to corporate computing systems, but already as full-fledged network nodes that support Ethernet or Token Ring, as well as the TCP / IP protocol stack, which has become the de facto network standard thanks to the Internet.

Another very important trend has emerged, affecting both local and global networks. They began to process information uncharacteristic of computer networks - voice, video images, pictures. This required changes to the way protocols, network operating systems, and communications equipment work. The complexity of transmitting such multimedia information over a network is related to its sensitivity to delays in the transmission of data packets - delays usually lead to distortion of such information at the end nodes of the network. Since traditional computer networking services - such as file transfer or e-mail - generate latency-sensitive traffic and all network elements were designed with this in mind, the emergence of real-time traffic has led to great problems.

Today, these problems are solved in various ways, including with the help of ATM technology specially designed for the transmission of various types of traffic.However, despite the significant efforts being made in this direction, there is still a long way to an acceptable solution to the problem, and there is still a lot to be done in this area. to achieve the cherished goal - the merger of technologies not only local and global networks, but also technologies of any information networks - computing, telephone, television, etc. Although today this idea seems to be a utopia, serious experts believe that the prerequisites for such a synthesis are already exist, and their opinions differ only in the assessment of the approximate terms of such a merger - the terms from 10 to 25 years are called. Moreover, it is believed that the basis for the merger will be the packet switching technology used today in computer networks, and not the circuit switching technology used in telephony, which, probably, should increase the interest in networks of this type.

In order to understand how it works the local network, it is necessary to understand such a concept as network technology.

Networking technology consists of two components: the network protocols and the hardware that powers these protocols. Protocol in turn is a set of "rules" by which computers on the network can connect to each other and exchange information. With the help of network technologies, we have the Internet, there is a local connection between the computers in your home. Yet network technologies are called basic, but also have another beautiful name - network architectures.

Network architectures define several network parameters, about which you need to have a little knowledge in order to understand the device of the local network:

1) Data transfer rate. Determines how much information, usually measured in bits, can be transmitted over the network in a given time.

2) Format of network frames. Information transmitted over the network exists in the form of so-called "frames" - information packets. Network frames in different network technologies have different formats of transmitted information packets.

3) Type of signal coding. Determines how, using electrical impulses, information is encoded in the network.

4) Transmission medium. This is the material (usually a cable) through which the flow of information passes - the one that is ultimately displayed on the screens of our monitors.

5) Network topology. This is a diagram of a network in which there are "ribs" representing cables and "tops" - the computers to which these cables stretch. There are three main types of network schemes: ring, bus and star.

6) Method of access to data transmission medium. Three methods of accessing the network environment are used: deterministic method, random access method, and priority transmission. The most common is the deterministic method, in which, using a special algorithm, the time of using the transmission medium is divided between all computers in the environment. In the case of a random network access method, computers compete to access the network. This method has several disadvantages. One of these disadvantages is the loss of part of the transmitted information due to the collision of information packets in the network. Priority access provides respectively the largest amount of information to the established priority station.

The set of these parameters determinesnetwork technology.

Networking technology is now widespread IEEE802.3 / Ethernet... It has become widespread thanks to simple and inexpensive technologies. Also popular due to the fact that the maintenance of such networks is easier. The topology of Ethernet networks is usually built in the form of a "star" or "bus". The transmission medium in such networks uses both thin and thick coaxial cables , and twisted pairs and fiber optic cables... The length of Ethernet networks usually ranges from 100 to 2000 meters. The data transfer rate in such networks is usually about 10 Mbps. Ethernet networks typically use the CSMA / CD access method, referring to decentralized random access methods to the network.

There are also high speed network options Ethernet: IEEE802.3u / Fast Ethernet and IEEE802.3z / Gigabit Ethernet providing data transfer rates up to 100 Mbps and up to 1000 Mbps, respectively. In these networks, the transmission medium is mainly optical fiber or shielded twisted pair.

There are also less common but ubiquitous networking technologies.

Network technology IEEE802.5 / Token-Ring is characterized by the fact that all vertices or nodes (computers) in such a network are united in a ring, use a marker method of accessing the network, support shielded and unshielded twisted pair, and optical fiber as a transmission medium. Token-Ring speed up to 16 Mbps. The maximum number of nodes in such a ring is 260, and the length of the entire network can reach 4000 meters.

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The local network IEEE802.4 / ArcNet it is special in that it uses the access method for transferring data using the transfer of authority. This network is one of the oldest and previously popular in the world. This popularity is due to the reliability and low cost of the network. Nowadays, such a network technology is less common, since the speed in such a network is quite low - about 2.5 Mbps. Like most other networks, shielded and unshielded twisted pairs and fiber-optic cables are used as the transmission medium, which can form a network up to 6,000 meters long and include up to 255 subscribers.

Network architecture FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface), based on IEEE802.4 / ArcNet and is very popular due to its high reliability. Such networking technology includes two fiber optic rings, up to 100 km long. At the same time, a high speed of data transmission in the network is ensured - about 100 Mbps. The point of creating two fiber-optic rings is that one of the rings is followed by a path with backup data. Thus, the chance of losing the transmitted information is reduced. Such a network can contain up to 500 subscribers, which is also an advantage over other network technologies.

From the PIE Wiki

Modern networking technologies have contributed to a new technical revolution. In the United States creating united network computers are given the same importance as the construction of expressways in the sixties. Therefore, the computer network is called the "information superhighway". To highlight the benefits that the network will bring to all users, Microsoft is talking about information "at their fingertips."

HIGH SPEED DATA CHANNELS

High-speed X.25 and ISDN channels can be used to transfer information. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) allows representatives to different countries organize videoconferences and discuss issues of interest to them without costly travel. For implementation remote access computers plug in digital adapters and bridges, and the slowest ISDN adapter is many times faster than a modem. Special software has been developed to enable Windows 95 and its Internet browser work with ISDN. You can find it and get it for free at World server Wide Web at http://www.microsoft.com. Currently, Russia is building a nationwide digital network with access to foreign countries, which will be able to provide ISDN communication services and provide remote access for end users to the local networks of their enterprises and interaction with computer networks, including Internet with a speed of 64 - 128 Kbps. Unfortunately, the ISDN implementation collides with big amount difficulties, since expensive equipment is required and special lines must be laid.

LOCAL NETWORKS

A computer connected to a network is called a Workstation, a computer that provides its resources is a server, and a computer that has access to shared resources is a client. Several computers located in the same room or functionally performing the same type of work: accounting or planning, registration of incoming products, etc., are connected to each other and combined into a working group so that they can share various resources: programs, documents , printers, fax, etc. The working group is organized so that the computers included in it contain all the resources necessary for normal operation. As a rule, a workgroup of more than 10-15 computers includes a dedicated server - a powerful enough computer that contains all the shared directories and special software to control access to the entire network or part of it. Server groups are combined into domains. A domain user can register on the network at any workstation in this domain and gain access to all its resources. Usually in server networks all shared printers are connected to print servers. From the point of view of organizing the interaction of computers, networks are divided into peer-to-peer (Peer-to-Peer Network) and with a dedicated server (Dedicated Server Network). In a peer-to-peer network, each computer plays an equal role. However, the increase in the number of computers on the network and the increase in the amount of data transferred leads to the fact that the network bandwidth becomes a bottleneck. Windows 95 is primarily designed to work in peer-to-peer networks to support the operation of a computer as a client of other networks. Windows 95, like Windows for Workgroups, can act as a server on a network. Compatibility with old MS-DOS and Windows Z.x network drivers is provided. The new operating system allows you to: share hard disks, printers, fax cards, organize peer-to-peer local area networks (LAN); use remote access and turn the office computer into a callable server; support 16-bit DOS network drivers. The network administrator can set overall design the desktop system, determine what operations are available to network users, and control the desktop configuration. A network located in a relatively small area is called a local area network (LAN). In recent years, the LAN structure has become more complex due to the creation of heterogeneous networks that unite different computer platforms. The ability to conduct video conferencing and use multimedia increases the software requirements of networks. Modern servers can store binary large objects (BLOBs) containing text, image, audio, and video files. In particular, if you need to get a database of the HR department over the network, then the BLOB technology will allow you to transfer not only personal data: last name, first name, patronymic, year of birth, but also portraits in digital form. Two server technologies There are two server technologies: file server technology and client server architecture. The first model uses file server where most programs and data are stored. At the request of the user, the necessary program and data are sent to him. Information processing is performed at the workstation. In systems with a client-server architecture, data is exchanged between the client application (front-end) and the server application (back-end). Data storage and processing is performed on a powerful server, which also controls access to resources and data. The workstation only receives the query results. Information processing application developers typically use this technology. The use of large and complex applications has led to the development of a multi-tier, primarily three-tier architecture with data placement on a separate database server (DB). All calls to the database go through the application server, where they are combined. Reducing the number of database calls reduces the license fees for the DBMS. Desktop management interface (DMI) To simplify the installation, security, and administration of networks with a unified set of APIs and tools remote control, Microsoft, IBM, Novell, DEC, HP, Sun and Synoptics have developed the DMI (Desktop Management Interface) standard. The standard provides for the ability to remotely update programs written in ROM, manage groups and individual clients. The introduction of the standard will reduce the cost of operating local networks by reducing staff and increasing the efficiency of its work.

GLOBAL NETWORKS

A local area network can be part of a global network that is gaining more and more acceptance around the world. The development of media and communication contributes to the unification of people living on different continents, according to their interests. Currently, industrialized countries are paying great attention to the creation of a unified information environment. The creation of an information superhighway will facilitate communication in the future between people who have common interests, but who are located in different parts of the world. The prototype of such a superhighway is the Internet, which provides services to millions of users around the world.

TECHNOLOGIES USED IN THE INTERNET AND INTRANET

At present, one of the priority areas of work of companies supplying software is the integration of the local network of the enterprise intranet (Intranet), in which the main work of the company takes place, into the global network so that employees of this enterprise can easily create their documents in HTML format ( HyperText Markup Language) and link to other documents. The organization of virtual corporate networks, based on the Internet, allows you to link together all branches of suppliers and customers, without creating your own network infrastructure. Integration of the corporate Intranet and the global network is based on the use of the same type of methods for storing and presenting information. File system computer is built on a hierarchical principle, providing a tree-like data storage structures. Web servers The Internet has a hypertext data presentation scheme that provides for the creation of links in documents to other documents that contain explanations of various terms, illustrations, audio files and videos. The standard for constructing such documents is defined by HTML. Software is being developed for text-to-speech technology - translation of text into a voice message. In recent years, Microsoft has introduced a number of new technical solutions to provide a user experience on the Internet. Microsoft is working with Intel to develop a new protocol that improves the way audio and video information is transmitted over the Internet. A protocol based on the ITL specifications) and the Internet Engineering Group (IETF) will include the following protocols: T. 120 for document conferencing, H.323 for audio and video conferencing, RTP / RTCP and RSVP for Internet teleconferencing control. It should be noted that a number of telephone companies of the Bell Group (RBOC) have filed a protest against the use of audio technology on the Internet with the Federal Telecommunications Commission (FCC).

The value of the Internet.

It has become customary that in the sphere information technologies the innovation process is proceeding at an unprecedented rate. "If from 1971 the automotive industry developed as rapidly as microprocessor technology, then the car today would have already rushed at a speed of 480 thousand km / h and consumed 1 liter of fuel per 335 thousand km of run "- this is how the specialists of the company" Intel " To complete the picture, we can add that this car would have cost only 75 cents! Against this background, the pace with which the transnational Internet network has been formed over the past three years noticeably stands out. of the business world "Business Week" defined the near future as the "era of the Internet." The Internet opens a new way of human communication, which can be called horizontal. Before its appearance, communication and dissemination of information was. Basically, vertical: the author writes a book - readers read it. Radio and television broadcast something - viewers and listeners listen and watch. Newspaper prints news - subscribers read them. Feedback on almost absent, although the need for it was extremely high. This is evidenced by letters to newspapers, applications and responses to radio and television stations, etc. The exchange of information between the very readers of a particular book, listeners of a particular program was practically impossible. The Internet provides information dissemination to an almost unlimited circle of consumers, and they can easily join the discussion. The Internet provides unique opportunities for vertical information communication: between the authorities and citizens, for feedback the last with the first. There is no organization behind the widespread introduction of the Internet into our life, the World Wide Web as a phenomenon develops independently, the entire humanity is the engine of the Internet. The main idea of ​​the Internet is the free flow of information and the establishment of connections between people. This is the most effective way to overcome racial, religious, and ideological barriers between people, countries, nations. The Internet is one of the most significant democratic advances in technology. With its appearance, information becomes the potential property of the majority of the world's inhabitants. All global communications related to telegraph, telephone, radio, television and computer technology, are now being integrated into a single whole - the Internet. We are talking about a mechanism for disseminating information, bringing people together and their interaction regardless of distance, time, state and many other boundaries.

History of the Internet in Russia

The history of the Russian Internet dates back to the early 80s, when the Kurchatov Institute was the first in our country to gain access to world networks. The Internet in Russia, as well as throughout the world, is increasingly becoming an element of the life of society, of course, becoming more and more like this society. Now the Internet can be accessed from 300-400 thousand computers in Russia and the CIS, and their number is constantly growing. Under favorable conditions, the Russian audience may turn out to be much larger, for example, the German one. Most types of Internet services are already represented in Russia. Some (news services, for example) have already been mastered and are almost as good as American ones. The most honored Web servers in Russia already boast several hundred thousand regular readers. This is not bad compared to, for example, the business paper press. And if we compare the qualitative indicators of the Internet audience and TV audience, then in many cases the preference can be given to the former. The Russian Internet audience, apart from the amount and the absolute level of income, is practically the same as the American one in other parameters. Typical users of Web services belong to a socially and economically active segment of the population, tend to seek new opportunities for personal and business development, and generally have a positive attitude towards the reforms being carried out in Russia. In its development Russian Internet, in general, repeats the stages of development of the global network. Over the past two years, we have made the leap to nearly 2,500 new servers. Go to Yahoo, one of the most popular directories on the Internet. In the regions (countries) section, opposite each item is a number - this is the number of links. And you will see what the Russian section looks like. The growth rate is close to the best indicators in the world, although it is constrained to some extent by communication problems and the relative high cost of the schedule in domestic networks Internet. If we talk about the level of information filling of the Russian Internet, then it, of course, could be much higher. Internet - business card country. The Russian Internet should unite all Russian-speaking users, be the custodian and disseminator of our culture and our language. Comfort needs to be improved information space, in which we live one of the components of the general level of human life. The main problems of Russian users include, first of all: a. lack of a single standard (which, apparently, will never exist until Russia becomes the leading world power in the field of computer technology), to the encoding of Cyrillic characters, which leads to incompatibility of programs. As a result, those who distribute text information in Russian on the Internet must submit it in several encodings, usually three or four, for the main operating systems: MS Windows, UNIX (KOI-8, OS / 2, MacOS), which means an increase in labor costs for the preparation of documents. Otherwise, the user, even having access to the information, will not be able to use it. B. lack of developed telecommunication systems in Russia and low quality of telecommunication services. The cost of access to the Internet via dial-up telephone lines at a speed of 14400-28800 bps in Moscow, the average is $ 3-5 per hour. In the USA - $ 1 per hour or less (with incomparable quality). High-speed and high-quality connection that allows you to use the full potential of the Internet Russian user will cost tens, and sometimes hundreds of times more than its American counterpart.

Application operation on the Internet

Applications running on the Internet are built on Java technology, which includes the Java programming language, virtual machine Java and Web browsers that run Java applications... The Java language is best suited for working with HTML pages. It allows you not to be limited to simple browsing of Web pages, but makes it possible to organize the interaction of interactive programs with the user. The Java technology extension, Java DataBase Connectivity (JDBC), for intranets, allows a Java application to access directly a server that may be located on a local network. The concept of Cascade Style Sheets (CSS) has been developed, which defines the styles used in the development of HTML pages, their parts and individual elements. It can be found at http // www.w3org / pub / WWW / TR / WD-style. ActiveX ActiveX technology is the next step in the evolution of OLE, designed to create interactive applications for the Internet and intranets. It supports Java applications and OLE components. ActiveX is based on COM (Component Object Model) and allows page administrators to use sound and video effects when documenting. ActiveX controls provide Windows applications with Web-based functionality. The Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM) enables developers to create application components that communicate with each other over the Internet. ActiveX with plug-in is used in Internet Explorer 3.0. Character encoding on the Internet For encoding of Cyrillic characters on the Internet, there are mainly four encodings: KOI8 (KOI8) - used mainly on computers with UNIX OS, but not supported by Windows. To solve this problem, it is recommended to install additional KOI fonts and special keyboard drivers such as Cyrwin. CP-1251 - used by Microsoft on Windows, widely used on PC IBM-compatible computers. CP-866 - used mainly on computers with MS-DOS OS. ISO-8859-5 - Applies to UNIX-compatible systems. The first two encodings are used on most servers. The problem of supporting the Cyrillic alphabet on the Internet is explained by the fact that the codes of Russian letters in UNIX and Windows operating systems do not match. Difficulties arising when encoding on KOI8 are discussed in detail on the WWW-page at: http://www.nagural.ru/~ache/koi8.html.

EMAIL

Combining computers into a network made it possible to organize the workflow in a new way both in small firms and in large organizations. There is no longer the need to print on paper documents that a team of users is working on. With the help of appropriate software, a team of users can jointly create documents, presentations and databases and send them by e-mail to other project participants, who may work in the same building or in another city, for addition and editing. Sequential mailing allows you to specify the order of passage of the message between the project participants after its addition and editing. This method of collective work on a document saves a significant part of the work time, since there is no need to spend time on personal meetings for working together... It is impossible to imagine a modern enterprise without data sharing and advanced means of guaranteed information protection. Protocols used by e-mail Some of the most popular protocols used on the Internet to receive Email includes the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMPT, and the Post Office Protocol, POP reception. SUPPORT FOR NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS Microsoft is committed to making Windows the most suitable platform for telecommunications and Internet access. Windows 95 contains a large number of drivers network cards and tools for network management. The unified user interface is virtually independent of the type of network supported. To work with various networks it is necessary that the operating system supports their protocols, i.e. a set of rules (the language of communication between computers) used in the transmission of information. The network protocol defines routing methods, addressing methods, etc. Windows 95 has built-in support for common network operating systems: Windows NT Advanced Server from Microsoft, Novell NetWare, LAN Manager, LAN Manager for UNIX, LANServer from IBM, 3 + Open and 3 + Share from 3Com, VINES from Banyan, Pathworks from Digital The operating system allows you to work in a heterogeneous network and provides support for a significant part of 32-bit popular network protocols: TCP / IP, IPX / SPX and NetBEUI and ND1S 2.x, Z.x or ODI drivers. TCP / IP protocol (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) is used when working with global networks such as the Internet and in Microsoft networks. The IPX protocol makes it possible to connect to NetWare file servers. Windows 95 includes support for various types of network protocols: PPP (Poinl-to-Point Protocol). Serial Line Internet Protocol, NRN (NetWare Remote Node) and the new Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) developed by Microsoft in cooperation with 3Com. It can create virtual private networks (VPNs) over dial-up lines and forward secure network packets over the Internet. RRTP is used when organizing a "tunnel" during communication between remote users and their corporate networks over the Internet. There is no need for enterprises to share their own global network infrastructure to avoid information leakage. Information security is guaranteed by the well-proven and proven authentication and encryption tools built into Windows NT Remote Access Service. The disadvantage of Windows 95 is that the switch server running this operating system only establishes one connection at a time. For better performance and flexibility, Windows NT is recommended as the remote access server, which provides up to 256 concurrent connections and concurrent routing.

The Internet of Things (from the English Internet of Things or abbreviated IoT) is a system of devices around you, connected to each other and to the Internet. Today, this industry is rapidly developing in revolutionary leaps. Such technical progress in the evolution of mankind is comparable only to the invention of the steam engine or the subsequent industrialization of electricity. By this day, digital transformation is completely reshaping a wide variety of industries in the economic field and transforming our familiar environment. At the same time, as is very often the case in such cases, being at the beginning of the path, it is difficult to predict the final effect of all transformations.

The process that has already been launched, most likely, cannot be uniform, and at this stage some market sectors appear to be more ready for changes than some others. The first industries include consumer electronics, vehicles, logistics, financial and banking sectors; the second include agriculture, etc. Although it is worth noting that successful pilot projects have been developed in this direction, which subsequently promise to bring quite significant results.

The project, called TracoVino, is one of the first attempts to introduce the Internet of Things in the famous Moselle Valley, which also bears the title of the oldest wine-growing region in modern Germany. The solution is based on a cloud platform that will automate all processes in the vineyard, from growing the product to its final bottling. The information required for making decisions will be fed into the electronic system from several types of sensors. In addition to determining the temperature, soil moisture and monitoring the environment, the sensors will be able to determine the amount of received solar radiation, the acidity of the earth and the content of various nutrients in it. What can this give in the end? And the fact that the company will not only allow winemakers to get an overall picture of the state of their vineyard, but also to analyze some of its areas. Ultimately, this will provide an opportunity for people to identify problems in advance, receive useful information about possible contamination and even get a forecast about the possible quality and total quantity of wine. Winemakers will be able to enter into forward contracts with business partners.

What other areas can be connected to such innovation?

The most developed use cases for the IoT, of course, include "smart cities". According to the data studied, which were obtained from various companies such as Beecham Research, Pike Research, iSupply Telematics, as well as the US Department of Transportation, at the moment, as part of these projects around the world, there are about a billion technical devices that are responsible for one or more other functions in water supply systems, urban transport management, public health and safety. These include smart parking lots that optimize the use of parking spaces, smart water systems that monitor the quality of water consumed by city residents, smart bus stops that provide detailed information about waiting times for the desired transport, and much more.

There are already hundreds of millions of devices in the industrial field that are ready to plug in. Such systems include smart maintenance and repair systems, logistics accounting and security, smart pumps, compressors and valves. A huge number of various devices have long been involved in the energy sector and the housing and communal services system - these are numerous meters, automation elements distribution networks, equipment for consumer needs, electric charging infrastructure, and technical support for renewable and distributed power supplies. In the medical field, to the Internet of Things at this moment diagnostic tools, mobile laboratories, implants of various directions are connected and will be connected in the future, technical devices to expand telemedicine.

Prospects for the number of connected devices to the Internet in the future

According to various observations, in the near future, the number of technical connections will increase commensurately and will grow by 25% every year. In general, by 2021, there will be about 28 billion connected gadgets and devices in the world. Of this total, only 13 billion will be accounted for by familiar consumer devices such as phones, tablets, laptops and computers. And the remaining 15 billion devices will be consumer and industrial devices. This includes various sensors, terminals for sales, cars, scoreboards, etc.

Despite the fact that the above data from the near future boggles the mental imagination, they are still not the final figure. The Internet of Things will be implemented more and more actively each time, and the further, the more devices (simple or complex) will have to be connected. As human technology advances, and especially under the influence of the launch of innovative 5G networks after 2020, the total increase in connected technology will march at a rapid pace and very quickly reach the figure of 50 billion.

The massive nature of network connections, as well as numerous use cases, dictate new requirements for IoT technology across the widest range. The speed of information transfer, all kinds of delays, as well as the reliability (guarantee) of data transfer are determined by the characteristics of a particular application. But, despite this, there are a number of common targets that force us to look separately at network technologies for the IoT and their differences from the usual telephone networks.

The first concern is the cost of implementing network technology. Indeed, in the final device, it should be significantly less than the currently existing GSM / WCDMA / LTE modules, which are used in the manufacture of telephones and modems. One of the reasons that hinders the mass adoption of connected devices is the too high financial component of the chipset itself, which implements the full stack of network technologies, which includes voice transmission and many other functions that are not so necessary in most of the available scenarios.

Main requirements for new systems

A related requirement, but formulated as a separate one, is low energy costs and as long as possible autonomous work... A large number of scenarios in the field of application of the Internet of Things provide for the autonomous operation of connected devices from the batteries built into them. Simplification of network modules and an energy-efficient model will allow to achieve autonomous operation, which will be calculated up to 10 years, with a total battery capacity of 5 W * h. Such figures, in particular, can be achieved due to a decrease in the volume of transmitted information when using long periods of "silence", during which the gadget will not receive or transmit information. Thus, it will practically consume a small amount of electricity. True, it is worth noting that the implementation of specific mechanisms, of course, differs depending on which technology it will be applied to.

Network coverage is another characteristic that should be thoroughly studied and considered. Today coverage mobile network transmits a sufficient amount of stable data transmission to settlements, including inside buildings. But at the same time, connected devices can also be where there are no crowds of people most of the time. These include remote, hard-to-reach areas, huge railway lines, the surface of vast seas and oceans, earthen cellars, insulated concrete and metal boxes, elevator shafts, iron containers, etc. The goal of resolving this problem, according to most people involved in the IoT market, is to improve the line budget by 20 dB in relation to traditional GSM networks, which are still the leaders in coverage among mobile technologies today.

For the Internet of Things, increased requirements for communication standards are being put forward

Various use cases of the Internet of Things in different areas activities involve completely diverse communication requirements. And here the question is not only about the ability to quickly scale the network in terms of the number of devices requiring connection. For example, it can be seen that in the above-mentioned example of a “smart vineyard” a large number of fairly simple sensors are used, while at industrial enterprises rather complex units will already be connected that perform independent actions, and not just record certain information that occurs in the environment. We can also mention the medical field of application, in particular technical equipment for telemedicine. The use of these complexes, the work of which is to conduct remote diagnostics, monitoring complex medical manipulations and remote training using video content as a connection in real time, will undoubtedly present more and more new requirements in the future in terms of signal interruptions, information transmission, and also the reliability and security of communication.

IoT technologies must be extremely flexible in order to provide a diverse set of network characteristics depending on the scope of application, prioritizing tens and hundreds different types network traffic and proper allocation of network resources to ensure economic efficiency. A huge number of connected equipment, dozens of different application scenarios, flexible management and control - that's all that must be implemented within a common network.

Long-term developments and developed scenarios of recent years in the field of wireless transmission information. This is due both to the desire to implement existing network architectures and protocols, and to create innovative system solutions literally from the very beginning. On the one hand, the so-called "capillary solutions" are very clearly traced, which relatively well solve the problems of IoT communications within one building or territory with limited potential. These solutions include such popular networks today as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Z-Wave, Zigbee and their other digital counterparts.

On the other hand, the current mobile technologies that are clearly out-of-the-box in terms of network coverage and scalability in a well-managed infrastructure. As stated in the research report Ericsson Mobility Report, the total coverage of the GSM network is today about 90% of the populated area of ​​the planet, WCDMA and LTE networks cover 65% and 40% directly with the active construction of new networks. Steps taken in developing standards mobile communications, in particular, the 3GPP Release 13 specifications are aimed precisely at achieving the target for IoT indicators while maintaining the benefits of using the global ecosystem. The improvement of these technologies in the future will become a solid foundation for the upcoming modifications of the mobile communication standards, which, among other things, include the standards of the fifth generation (5G) networks.

Low power alternative designs for the unlicensed frequency spectrum are mostly aimed at more specialized applications. In addition, the need to develop new infrastructure and the closed nature of technologies directly affect the spread of such global networks.